Native Tribes of Arizona
Introduction
The following is a very truncated look at the native tribes of Arizona . The information included will be a thumbnail view of their history, language, belief systems and current status to be used as a reference for SPI investigators. Because this is truly barely a smear on the surface of what is an extremely complex subject , also included are some references and other sources of information for those who want or need to gain a better understanding of Arizona’s first people.
The following is in four parts. First is a general background of Arizona ’s tribal culture history, then an overview of each tribe individually including their belief systems in regards to death, after life, human remains and other related issues. This is followed by an overview of the Indian reservations and communities. The latter was included because it is important to understand that there is a difference between the cultural history and the modern political role of Arizona ’s tribes.
General Background
Human beings have been a part of Arizona ’s landscape for well over 15,000 years before presence or 13,000 years B.C. Where these people migrated from and how and when they actually arrived is source of great debate among archaeologist. The bottom line is that the first inhabitants migrated to this continent before the end of the ice age, around 10,000 years ago. They are usually referred to as the Clovis, are thought to have practiced a big game hunting focused economy by following large herds of Rancho La Brean Fauna such as mammoths and mastodons, camels and the early form of the American bison, Bison antiques, and other large migratory animals.
Around 8000 BC, the world’s climate started to change, warming up and melting the glaciers formed during the Pleistocene, and some species of the mega fauna that the early people were reliant on become extinct. Consequently, this also marked the beginning of a change in the economic focus from large game hunting to small game hunting and an increase in reliance on plant and seed gathering. Between 5000 and 3000 B.C. you also have changes in technology. For example, the down sizing and morphological changes in spear head types (aka projectile points) in response to the smaller game and an increase in tools for processing plants such as mano and metates, and mortars and pestles. Moreover rather than following the migration of large herds over long distances, bands of people began to focus on local resources and developed a complicated mix of seasonal rounds in order to take advantage of all the resources a particular area or environment had to offer.
Early forms of agriculture reached the southwest around 2000 B.C. from Mexico in the form of the tri-fecta known as corn, beans and squash. For close to 1500 years agriculture played a minor economic role. Generally, those who practiced it would plant seeds in favorable areas in the hopes that they might grow and would go on to conduct their usual seasonal hunting and practices, returning to the location later in the season to harvest the results.
Around 500 B.C. this all changed. There are several theories about why there was a change in focus from hunting and gathering to agriculture. One of the theories includes speculating that the environment became stressed by an increase in population. In essence, as populations grew competition for resources also grew taxing the availability of wild resources. Consequently, when the usual seasonal practices no longer could sustain the population, people began to rely on agriculture.
No matter what the impetus was for the change it ultimately meant that to be successful, people needed to remain in the area to insure the success of their crops. This also meant that the people could expend more time and effort in building shelters, such as pit houses for protection from the elements, storage pits to store food and structures in which to hold religious events. Because agriculture is labor intensive, people formed communities, rather than live in small roving bands. This also meant some people would eventually learn to control water by digging communal wells and canal systems. A successful agricultural based society could also support people who could just focus on specializing in religious practices, arts and crafts such as pottery making and tool manufacturing. Though people did continue to exploit natural resources, because agriculture is labor intensive and location dependant, their ability to collect those resources became limited. Therefore, there is also an increase in trade net works at this time.
In the marginal environmental areas, where agriculture was not as successful, such as eastern Arizona and along portions of the Arizona strip peoples continued to practice a seasonal strategy probably supplementing some of their diet by trading with the agriculturalist. Between 100 and 500 A.D. there was a technological change from a reliance on thrusting spears and tools called Atlatals, which hurled short spears, to bows and arrows.
Around or before 500 A.D. rose three very distinct agricultural cultures known as the Mogollon, Anasasi, and Hohokan. The Mogollon are located in the southeastern portion of Arizona and southwestern New Mexico . The Hohokan are roughly located in south central Arizona and the Anasasi are located in northen Arizona stretching up to southern Utah . All there of these groups are known for their famous pueblos such as Casas Grandes, Chaco Canyon and Canyon De Chelly, cliff dwellings, trade routes with Mexico and California , water canals, ball courts, trails systems, and entriquetly decorated pottery among other things. The key is to know that the majority of these cultural groups and their communities began to wane and people were starting to abandon their structures starting around 1200 B.C. By the time of the Spanish arrival in the southwest by 1528 B.C. the large pueblos were essentially empty and people in the desert regions were living in smaller communities maintaining subsistence farms and/or hunting and gathering, while some groups were living in small pueblos in northern New Mexico . It was also about this time that the Navajo and Apache arrive in the area from the Great Plains .
Tribal Cultures
It is very difficult to summarize the tribal beliefs about death, ghosts and/or spirits. The primary reason is that each tribal culture has their own traditions and beliefs surrounding the dead and death. Moreover, it is often a very sensitive subject that could be construed as rude or forbidden to discuss in mixed company. Or, in some cases, the belief is that the dead bring illness or death with them, consequently, there is a concern that a general discussion of the dead or the mere mention of a dead person’s name would invite them to bring illness or death on to the living. That is why some tribal cultures destroy the material culture of the deceased person after they have been properly mourned (in some tribes the mourning will go for up to a year ending with a final ceremony to burn the deceases material remains). There are laws such as the Archaeological Restoration and Protection Act (ARPA) and Native American Graves Protection and Restoration act (AGPRA), which requires the return of human remains and funerary objects back to the tribes, or that the descendent tribe is consulted when human remains associated with an archaeological site are encountered. These laws have forced some tribes to reconcile handling human remains and objects associated with the dead with their beliefs about the harm that can be caused by the remains of the dead they are accepting for reburial. Some tribes refuse to accept the remains or objects despite the fact that they have the legal right to do so.
Havasupai
The Havasupai are Yuman speakers who’s traditional area is from the western banks of the Little Colorado River along the southern rim of the Grand Canyon west to the Cataract Creek Canyon and south to Bill Williams Mountain . The Havauspai practiced agriculture during the summer, hunted and gathered during the winter along the Colorado Plateau. Horse raising also became important to them during historic times.
There were four types shamans that were important to the tribe, the most important being the general healing shaman. Illness was believed to have supernatural causes such as sorcery, ghosts, spirits and harmful dreams. Each person was believed to posses a soul associated with their heart. The soul is supposed to leave the body during dreams and in death. Then the soul is thought to journey from the body to the land of the dead in the sky. After death souls could reappear as a ghost who if encountered can cause great illness and death. Consequently, the Havasupai avoid opportunities to encounter ghosts.
The Havasupai traditional mortuary practices generally entails the body being cremated and most of the diseased personal effects, two horses and all or part of their crops are destroyed.
http://www.havasupaitribe.com/aboutus.html
Hualapai (Walapai)
Traditionally they inhabited an area of more than five million acres. Their homeland stretchedfrom the Grand Canyon southward to the Bill Williams and Santa Maria rivers, and from the Black Mountains eastward to the pine forests of the San Francisco Peaks . Primarily nomadic hunter-gatherers, the Hualapai were organized in bands. Each band occupied a defined territory in pursuit of seasonally-available wild plants and animals. Farming was also practiced in locations where adequate water was available.
Traditional burial practices have changed due to the heavy western influence. Its thought that the Hualapai originally cremated their dead, but changed to an internment style burial due to pressure to conduct “Christian style” of burials (McGuire 1983:35). Consequently, they buried people in rockslides and cairns during late historic times. They also practiced mourning ceremonies probably similar in structure to other tribes in the area. According to McGuire (1984) little of the traditional Hualapai cosmology survived because of the early acceptance of outside religious influences. However, shaman played an important role in Hualapai society right into recent times. Apparently, the spirit of a dead relative alerts a perspective shaman to his or her calling.
http://www.destinationgrandcanyon.com/history.html
Maricopa and Pee Posh
The traditional area of the Maricopa is the Salt and Gila River areas from the McDowell Range on the north and east to the Vulcan Mountains on the west, Mohawk Mtn on the south west to Gila Bend. The Maricopa people were small bands of Yuman, or Hokan, speaking people living along the lower Gila and Colorado rivers. Each of these bands migrated eastward at different times. The Xalychidom (Maricopa of Lehi, also known as the Holchidama and/or Pee Posh), left around 1825-1830. The last of these bands is said to have left the Colorado River in the late 1830’s. Eventually the bands came together and became collectively known as the Maricopa. As they migrated eastward, they came upon the Pima tribe and established a relationship. Both tribes provided protection against the Quechan and Apache tribes.
The Maricopa were for the most part intensive agriculturalists who built canals directing water from the Gila and Salt Rivers to their fields as well as continued to gather and hunt natural resources. The Maricopa were likely to practice cremation much like their neighbors and all traditional knowledge, including the traditional songs and methods of healing, was imparted to them in their dreams by dead relatives or other spirits. Because the Maricopa were essentially an ethnically diversity community singers would incorporate traditional songs from a variety of different areas during the mourning ceremonies because the deceased might have relatives from other related tribes.
Pima and Papago, Akimel O’odham (Pima) and Tohono O’Odham ( Papago)
The Pima and Papago are groups related by their common Uto-Aztecan language and traditions but who occupied different areas. Both groups occupied an area from southern Arizona to northern Sonora , Mexico . Today the Pima are known as the Akimel O’odham meaning the “river people,” where as the Papago refer to themselves as the Tohono O’odham or “desert people.”
The Pima and Papago occupied a variety of different ecological zones ranging from the the western Colorado Desert to the relatively temperate Arizona uplands practicing a combination of agriculture, grazing of domestic animals during historic times, and hunting and gathering depending on the climatic conditions. However, the Papago or desert people tended to rely heavily on natural products and grazing, with some agriculture mixed in, while the Pima or river people would rely more on agriculture mixed with grazing and wild products.
Shaman played a very important and very complicated role when it came to curing and causing illness. In some cases the Shaman were put to death because they were thought to actually cause sickness. There was overlap and variations among the various bands when it came to general ceremonies. “A theme through all of them is that the power needed to sustain human society is gotten by men on journeys away from home. The songs, oratory and drama that accompanied each ceremony focused on how individual men could get things-scalps, rain, luck, feather seeds-on which the general welfare depended” ( Bahr 1984:180). The dead were buried in mountainous locations in graves some distance from the settlements, sometime in a group like a western style “cemetery” or as individuals in isolations.
Mojave
Before they surrendered to United States troops, their river holdings stretched from Black Canyon, where the tall pillars of First House of Mutavilya loomed above the river, past Avi kwame or Spirit Mountain, the center of spiritual things, to the Quechan Valley, where the lands of other tribes began. Translated into present landmarks, their lands began in the north at Hoover Dam and ended about one hundred miles below Parker Dam.
Religion
They believed in their creator Mutavilya, who gave them their names and their commandments, and in his son Mastamho, who gave them the river and taught them how to plant. They were mainly farmers who planted in the overflow of the untamed river, following the age-old customs of the Aha macave.
Mohave custom demands that the body as well as the property of the dead should be cremated. (7,13,15) The preservation of photographs would be an especially offensive violation of this rule, since it preserves "the shadow," i.e., soul (1) of the dead. Hence the Mohave are very reluctant to be photographed and resent any attempt to photograph them by stealth.
Chemehuevi
Cocopah
Quechan
The first important contact of the Quechan with Europeans was with the Spanish explorer Juan Bautista de Anza and his party in the winter of 1774. Relations were friendly and on Anza's return from his second trip to Alta California in 1776 the chief of the tribe and three others journeyed to Mexico City to petition the Viceroy of New Spain for the establishment of a mission. The chief, Palma and his 3 companions were baptized there on February 13, 1777. Palma was given the name Salvador Carlos Antonio.
Spanish settlement among the Quechan did not go as well as hoped and the tribe rebelled from July 17–19, 1781 and killed 4 priests and 30 soldiers. The Spanish mission settlements of San Pedro y San Pablo de Bicuñer and Puerto de Purísima Concepción were also decimated. The tribe was punished militarily the following year.
The United States engaged the Yuma Indians in warfare during the Yuma Expedition, which was one of many Indian Wars that took place before the American Civil War. The California state government also sponsored the ill fated 1857 Gila Expedition against the Quechan in retribution for the revenge massacre of the John Joel Glanton gang.
Apache
Navajo
the Navajo typically live in small family groups now widely distributed across northeastern Arizona, southeastern Utah, southwestern Colorado and northwestern New Mexico.
Yavapai
Yaqui
Many Yaquis also moved further north to Tempe, Arizona, and settled in a neighborhood named after Our Lady of Guadalupe. The town incorporated in 1979 as Guadalupe, Arizona. Today, more than 44 percent of the town's ethnic makeup is still Native American, many of them trilingual in Yaqui, English and Spanish languages.
There is also a small Yaqui neighborhood known as Penjamo in South Scottsdale, Arizona .
In all, there are (2008) 11,324 voting members of the tribe.[1]
Hopi
Although the Hopi are composed of elements that must have spoken diverse tongues, their speech is readily recognized as a dialog of the Shoshonean language, which in various forms was spoken in a large part of the Great Basin between the Rocky mountains and the Sierra Nevada, in southwestern Oregon, and in southern California even to the coast and on Santa Catalina island; and which furthermore is undoubtedly allied to the great Aztecan language. A linguistic map would represent the Hopi as an isolated people surrounded by alien tongues
The religious and ceremonial life of the Hopi centers in the kiva, which is simply a room, wholly or partly subterranean and entered by way of ladder through an opening in the flat roof. While the membership of the kiva consists principally of men and boys from certain clan or clans, there is no case in which all the members of a kiva belong to one clan- a condition inseparable from the provision that a man may change his kiva membership, and in fact made necessary by the existence of more clans than kivas. It is probable, nevertheless, that originally the kivas were clan institutions."
Kaibab Paiute
Tewa
The Arizona Tewa, descendants of those who fled the Second Pueblo Revolt of 1680-1692, live on the Hopi Reservation in Arizona on the First Mesa.
The Arizona Tewa are related to the Tewa communities living in the Rio Grande Valley, such as Santa Clara and San Juan. They moved from the Galisteo BasinPueblo area of New Mexico following the second Pueblo Revolt of 1696. The main settlements are Tewa Village (Hano) and Polacca which are located in Navajo County, Arizona (55 miles north of Winslow). A smaller community is based in Keams Canyon Hopi governmental center.
The long contact with Hopi peoples has led to similarities in social structure with their kinship system and their organization to clans being almost identical with the Hopi (the other Tanoan Pueblo groups do not have clans). However, the Tewa dual moiety has been preserved.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arizona_Tewa
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tewa
Zuni
Yaqui/Yoeme
For non-Yaquis it is difficult to fully grasp the blend of ancient Yaqui beliefs and the religion taught to them by Jesuit priests in the 1500s, but they successfully melded the two into a unique belief system that includes their beloved deer dancer.
Worldwide, the Yaquis may be best known for these men highly trained in an ancient religious ceremony in which the dancer wears a headdress depicting a deer's head and whose steps imitate movements of a deer.
The deer dancer is prominent in the Pascua Yaqui logo and Tribal symbol. The successful merger of ancient Yaqui traditions with Catholicism allows the deer dancer to remain a central feature of the spiritual lives of today's Pascua Yaqui Tribe of Arizona. Pascua is Spanish for Easter, and it is during the Easter season that the deer dancer is most prominent, participating in ceremonies that depict events of this holy period.
Flowers are important to the Yaquis' daily lives and ceremonies. They combine the ancient belief that the deer dancer is from a flower-filled spiritual world of natural beauty with the belief that Christ's grace is symbolized by flowers that grew from blood that fell from Jesus' wounds during the crucifixion. Flowers are believed to be powerful weapons against evil and are a prevailing symbol seen in elaborately embroidered floral designs on traditional Yaqui clothing.
http://www.pascuayaqui-nsn.gov/history_and_culture/culture/letterch.shtml
Reservations/ Indian Communities
Ak-Chin Indian Community- Maricopa , AZ
The community is composed mainly of Pima and Tohono O'odham, as well as some Yoeme members.
The Ak-Chin Indian Community is nestled into the Santa Cruz Valley of Southern Arizona. Located at an elevation of approximately 1,186 feet, the Community lies 58 miles south of Phoenix in the northwestern part of Pinal County . In this extremely arid Sonoran Desert climate, no streams slice through the landscape and no mountains rise steeply from the desert floor. Two washes traverse the reservation from north to south.
The Ak-Chin, who are comprised of the both Tohono O’odham and Pima people, own and operate a 109 acre industrial park which was constructed in 1971. Suitable for light industry and agricultural-related industries, the industrial park is located at the southeast corner of the reservation, adjacent to the Maricopa-Casa Grande Highway and the Southern Pacific Railroad.
http://www.ak-chin.nsn.us/main.html
http://www.itcaonline.com/tribes_akchin.html
Colorado River Indian Reservation (CRIT)
The Colorado River Indian Tribes include four distinct Tribes - the Mohave, Chemehuevi, Hopi and Navajo. There are currently about 3,500 active Tribal members.
The CRIT Reservation was created in 1865 by the Federal Government for “Indians of the Colorado River and its tributaries,” originally for the Mohave and Chemehuevi, who had inhabited the area for centuries. People of the Hopi and Navajo Tribes were relocated to the reservation in later years.
The reservation stretches along the Colorado River near Parker, AZ on both the Arizona and California side. It includes almost 300,000 acres of land, with the river serving as the focal point and lifeblood of the area.
http://www.crit-nsn.gov/crit_contents/about/
Fort Mojave
The Fort Mojave Indian Reservation is located along the Colorado River north of Needles California and currently encompassing 23,669 acres (96 km²) in Arizona , 12,633 acres (51 km²) in California , and 5,582 acres (23 km²) in Nevada . The reservation was originally established by executive order in 1870 and is now home to approximately 1,100 members of the Mohave Tribe.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Mojave_Indian_Reservation
Fort McDowell: Yavapai Nation.
Fort McDowell Yavapai Nation is located within Maricopa County about twenty-three miles northeast of Phoenix . The desert landscape is contrasted by the Verde River , which flows north to south through the reservation. Thirty miles east of Fort McDowell , the Four Peaks rise from the desert floor to an elevation of more than 7,000 feet.
The community was created by Executive Order on September 15, 1903. The 40-square mile reservation is now home to 600 community members, while another 300 live off reservation. The reservation is a small parcel of land that formerly was the ancestral territory of the once nomadic Yavapai people, who hunted and gathered food in a vast area of Arizona 's desert lowlands and mountainous Mogollon Rim country.
http://www.ftmcdowell.org/history&culture/history&culture.htm
Fort Yuma- Quechan Tribe
Established in 1884, the Fort Yuma Indian Reservation has a land area of 178.197 km² (68.802 sq mi) in southeastern Imperial County, California, and western Yuma County, Arizona, near the city of Yuma, Arizona.
http://www.cba.nau.edu/caied/TribePages/Quechan.asp
Gila Indian Reservation
The Gila River Indian Community is an Indian reservation in Arizona, USA, lying adjacent to the south side of the city of Phoenix, within the Phoenix Metropolitan Area in Pinal and Maricopa Counties. It was established in 1859, and formally established by Congress in 1939. The Community is home for members of both the Akimel O’odham (Pima) and the Pee-Posh (Maricopa) tribes.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gila_River_Indian_Community
Hopi Reservation
Hopis live in northeast Arizona at the southern end of the Black Mesa . A mesa is the name given to a small isolated flat-topped hill with three steep sides called the 1st Mesa , 2nd Mesa , and the 3rd Mesa . On the mesa tops are the Hopi villages called pueblos. The pueblo of Oraibi on the 3rd Mesa started in 1050, and is the oldest in North America that was lived in continuously.
Today there are 12 Hopi villages on or below the three mesas, with Moencopi to the west (on Dinetah), and Keams Canyon to the east. Each village has its own village chief, and each contributes to the annual cycle its own ceremonies. Each village presents its own distinct cast of katsinam, and each village has maintained its own balance of engagement with the Euro-American culture and traditional Hopi practices and views.
Today, the Hopi Indians are divided into to traditional --which preserve ancient lands and customs, and new - who work with outsiders. The Hopi Indians today love their traditions, arts, and land, but also love the modern American life. Their kids go to school and they use medical centers. The Hopi live and work outside of the reservations. Troubles with the Navajo whose reservations surround the Hopi still continue today.
http://www.crystalinks.com/hopi1.html
Hualapai Indian Reservation
The Hualapai Reservation occupies a large area of the western Grand Canyon corridor, south of the Colorado, from Pearce Ferry at the upper end of Lake Mead 56 miles due east to the boundary of the smaller Havasupai Reservation. This is rough, rugged land with few facilities and although a lot is rather flat, either open grassy plains or wooded plateaus, towards the north it falls away to a series of deep, branched canyons that in general become more impressive further east. Most of this country can only be visited by lengthy hiking and/or driving on dusty dirt roads, though the Hualapai have developed one tourist center at Grand Canyon West, a small settlement on the rim 3,600 feet above the river, quite close to the Grand Wash Cliffs that mark the edge of the Colorado Plateau and the end of the Grand Canyon.
http://www.americansouthwest.net/arizona/grand_canyon/hualapai_reservation.html
Navajo Nation
The Navajo Nation extends into the states of Utah , Arizona and New Mexico , covering over 27,000 square miles of unparalleled beauty. In 1923, a tribal government was established to help meet the increasing desires of American oil companies to lease Navajo land for exploration. Navajo government has evolved into the largest and most sophisticated form of American Indian government. The Navajo Nation Council Chambers hosts 88 council delegates representing 110 Navajo Nation chapters
Today, the Navajo Nation is striving to sustain a viable economy for an ever increasing population that now surpasses 250,000.
Pesqua Yaqui Tribe
Maintain two communities. One in Tucson located ?? and the other in Pima County near Scottsdale , Az.
http://www.pascuayaqui-nsn.gov/index.shtml
Tohono O’odhan Nation
The Tohono O’odham Nation is comparable in size to the state of Connecticut . Its four non-contiguous segments total more than 2.8 million acres at an elevation of 2,674 feet
http://www.itcaonline.com/tribes_tohono.html
Yavapai-Prescott Reservation
When it was established in 1935, the Yavapai Prescott Indian Reservation occupied only 75 acres of the former Fort Whipple Military Reserve in central Arizona . The first reservation established solely for the Yavapai, it continued to grow with the 1956 addition of 1,320 acres.
The tribe’s rich history dates back centuries, when the women wove intricate baskets and the men were largely hunters and gathers. The tribe’s first chief was Sam Jimulla, succeeded by his wife Viola. She was the first woman chieftess among North American Indians.
There are three primary groups of Yavapai existing today – they are located at Fort McDowell , Camp Verde and Prescott .
http://www.ypit.com/tribal_history.htm
References
Harwell, Henry O. and Marsha C.S. Kelly
- Maricopa. In.Handbook of North American Indians. Volume 10: Southwest. Smithsonian Institute Washington D.C.
McGuire, Thomas R.
- Walapai. In, Handbook of North American Indians. Volume 10: Southwest. Smithsonian Institute Washington D.C.
Sturtevant, William C. and Alfonso Ortiz. Eds
1979 Book of North American Indians. Volume 9: Southwest. Smithsonian Institute Washington D.C.
Sturtevant, William C. and Alfonso Ortiz. Eds
- 1983 Handbook of North AmericanVolume 10: Southwest. Smithsonian Institute Washington D.C.
Hirst, Stephen
- 19 I Am the Grand Canyon : The Story of the Havasupai
Euler, Robert
Havsupai Ledgends.
Forbes, Jack D. 1965. Warriors of the Colorado : The Yumas of the Quechan Nation and Their Neighbors. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.
Kroeber, A. L. 1925. Handbook of the Indians of California . Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin No. 78. Washington , D.C.
Desert Indian Woman by Frances Manuel and Deborah Neff, University of Arizona Press, Tucson , 2001.
In the wake of the wheel: introduction of the wagon to the Papago Indidans of southern Arizona." by Wesley Bliss. Pp. 23-33 in Human Problems in Technological Change, edited by E.H. Spicer. New York : Russell Sage Foundation Publications.
The Tohono O'odham and Pimeria Alta by Allan J. McIntyre, Arcadia Publishing, 2008.
A Syndetic Approach to Identification of the Historic Mission Site of San Cayetano Del Tumacácori, by Deni J. Seymour, 2007a, in International Journal of Historical Archaeology, 11(3):269-296.
Delicate Diplomacy on a Restless Frontier: Seventeenth-Century Sobaipuri Social And Economic Relations in Northwestern New Spain, Part I, by Deni J. Seymour, 2007b, in New Mexico Historical Review, 82(4).
Delicate Diplomacy on a Restless Frontier: Seventeenth-Century Sobaipuri Social And Economic Relations in Northwestern New Spain, Part II, Deni J. Seymour, 2008, in New Mexico Historical Review, 83(2).
More information
Wikipidia
This has a surprising amount of good and pretty factual information on Arizona ’s Tribes. A good place to start a research project.
Economic Development
http://www.cba.nau.edu/caied/TribePages
Native Languages
http://www.native-languages.org/arizona.htm
Athabascan-Navajo and Apachi
http://www.aa.tufs.ac.jp/athabascan/about_e.html
Yuman-Quechan, Cocopah, Yavapai, Mojave, Huachidama, Havasupai, Hualapai,
Uto-Aztecean/Shoshonian/takic- Hopi, Paiute, Tohono O’Odem, Chemehuevi , Yaqui, Tewa
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uto-Aztecan_language
Native Organizations
Government Organizations
Inter Tribal Council of Arizona, Inc. http://www.itcaonline.com/index.html
Bureau of Indian Affairs
Tribes
Cocopah
Colorado River Indian Tribe
http://www.crit-nsn.gov/crit_contents/about/
Havasupai
http://www.havasupaitribe.com/aboutus.html
Hopi
Navajo
Pima/Papago/ Tohono O’Odham
http://www.ak-chin.nsn.us/main.html
Quechan
Tewa
Yavapai
http://www.ftmcdowell.org/history&culture/history&culture.htm
Navajo
Yaqui
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoeme#History_of_the_Yaqui
http://www.pascuayaqui-nsn.gov/history_and_culture/culture/index.shtml
Great information about their language and history.
http://hemi.nyu.edu/cuaderno/yoeme/content.html
Yavapai